Tanzania's Relationship with Lions

LIONS, PEOPLE, AND THEIR PREY

By: Catherine Puma

“Africa is not Africa without lions,” Bernard M. Kissui, African Wildlife Foundation researcher, once told Smithsonian staff writer Abigail Tucker. Tanzania’s Serengeti National Park is home to lion, human and prey populations. Each is interdependent on the others, and thus it is imperative to understand all three in order to maintain a fair balance between them. Through the study of Tanzanian government, prey population fluctuations, and lion history and behavior, wildlife conservationists may be better prepared to approach the problem of preserving lion lives.  African lion populations are declining and have been for the past 12,000 years (Tucker, 36). If the human-lion conflict is not analyzed and the reasons behind it not addressed, lions will go extinct directly due to human involvement.

Why this conflict between humans and lions of the Serengeti continues is baffling. Colonial conservationists only attempted preserving the Tanzanian environment and its natural resources after World War II, and their efforts met opposition because they assumed African labor and cooperation were endless (Maddox, 10). And so, modern wildlife conservationists cannot assume that the African people will accept every possible solution to their problems. The Tanzanian culture and government must first be understood in order to gain insight into the way people live. It is useless telling people to change their lifestyles to preserve their environment when they have agricultural and poverty issues of their own to address. Only after we prove to the local communities that we care about their condition can we teach them how to better care for the wildlife around them.

The Tanzanian government is a presidential republic and a multiparty democracy, where the current president is Jakaya Kikwete. Kikwete is a member of the Revolutionary Party of Tanzania, which has 259 other members. The other major parties are the Party for Democracy and Progress and the Civic United Front, which consist of 48 and 34 members, respectfully (Neumann, 9). Since there is such an imbalance in the representation of each party, there is tension and bitterness between the groups, which escalates around election times. Surrounding the 2005 elections, there was a series of corruption scandals, which revealed a lack of governmental honesty and efficiency. During the 2010 elections, however, there were no corruption scandals of note and the bitter tension between different parties considerably diminished (Neumann, 11). The uplifting trend in Tanzanian elections lends hope to the country’s future, and we hope that with this new confidence in government, conservation problems can be dealt with.

When the “Tanzanian people” are mentioned, the people living directly around the Serengeti National Park is being specifically referred to because they are those who need to cope with the lions the most. Although Serengeti National Park is a designated “safe haven” for wildlife, a lack of fencing enables the villages nearby and the wildlife to interact daily. It is impractical to simply scold villagers and order them to leave the lions living in the Park alone; such a concept would be similar to telling a neighbor not to worry about the tiger lurking in the woods behind their backyard. Instead, the village structure must be analyzed in order to determine ways in which humans and lions can live together instead of against each other.

The villages surrounding Serengeti National Park practice some agriculture, but their societies are mostly centered about their pastoral practices. People raise goats and sheep to satisfy the necessary protein intake. And while cattle are also raised, they are rare and thus seen more as a status symbol than a food source, so much so that the number of cattle is more valuable than the number of wives. A study done in the early 2000’s which investigated why “bushmeat hunting by communities adjacent to the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania” occurs states that young men would begin poaching when they had no other sources of protein, and the men with livestock and families to support would poach when livestock was too low to feed his family or to help pay his taxes. Since the men poach not out of malice but to feed themselves and their families, and there is an extremely slim chance they will get caught poaching, they do not feel immensely guilty for their actions (Loibooki, 14). It is difficult to solve this dilemma with a corrupt government in power, which leaves poverty-stricken villages to fend for themselves in the middle of the savanna during hard times. While the government is still weak and inefficient, the villages must solve these pressing issues on a local level, which can be improved by caring for the livestock more properly until the corruption stops taking advantage of taxes.

Why members of livestock in Tanzanian villages die is analyzed to learn how to better care for them. Causes and rates of mortality show that livestock die more often to drought and disease than by lion and other carnivore attacks. Fences can protect against carnivores, but will not prevent multi-host pathogens transferred from wildlife prey populations to local livestock populations. When hunting, lions often go after the weaker members of a herd because they are easier to catch. As such, when a herd is suffering from a contagious disease, the lions usually take down the infected ones. As with the livestock, prey populations are more devastated by disease than by predation, which is seen when herbivores of the Serengeti were held to about one-fifth of their carrying capacity by repeated outbreaks of rinderpest (Sinclair 1979) whereas predation had a miniscule impact on these prey (Kruuk 1972 Schaller 1972).

This explains why predator removal programs implemented in an attempt to increase the prey population usually fail, because the lions keep the spread of disease in check within the prey population, which in turn helps prevent livestock from becoming infected as well. As concluded in Packer’s “Keeping the herds healthy and alert: implications of predator control for infectious disease”, “By removing infectious individuals from the wildlife population, predators not only reduce the force of infection in wildlife, but indirectly reduce the impact of disease on the domesticated species.” Because the lions benefit both wildlife and livestock, the local villages should want the lions to continue thriving in the Serengeti National Park.

Improvements in agriculture management and practices could benefit the stability of villages, so the diets of its inhabitants would not rely solely on the health of a few goats and sheep. Introducing drought-resistant crops and early maturing seeds would expand productively, increase dependability, and help prevent land degradation. However, when such answers were attempted, the farmers soon realized that these new practices lowered profit while increasing necessary labor and thus raising the costs of production (Maddox, 57). Because taking care of the environment has been thus far economically unbeneficial, the Tanzanian people continue their old ways of growing crops so they can at least feed some of the present generation, even though they know it will harm the land for future generations. Tanzanians want to replenish the land they so depend on, but there is no method as of yet that allows them to do such without sacrificing their own wellbeing. The balance is out of whack and needs to be put back.

Research performed to better understand the Serengeti National Park is vital to finding better solutions for the human-lion conflict of the area. The Tanzania Natural Resource Forum is one of the major hubs of research, and an add for a research assistant offered 500,000 tsh per month, which is approximately $290.27 per month. However, this add was offering such an opportunity to international applicants. In addition, the Tanzania Natural Resource Forum acquires most of its funding from international organizations, including but not limited to Ford Foundation, Wildlife Conservation Society, and WWF (Kissui, 43). If this Forum and research centers like it instead searched for assistance among locals, they would help promote caring for the environment among its people and also open steady jobs to the Tanzanian economy, possibly lowering the need to poach.

Tourism in the Serengeti National Park is extremely popular because the Serengeti is one of the biggest natural preserves and holds the biggest lion population left in the world. However, many of the tourism companies are run by international investors and organizations, which takes away vital economic opportunities from the local people. If young men from Tanzanian villages sought jobs in the tourism industry instead of resorting to poaching, knowledge of Serengeti National Park and economic opportunities would spread among the human populations in the surrounding area.

As aforementioned, One of the reasons why people practice poaching is so they can sell that meat to pay off their taxes. If research centers like the Tanzania Natural Research Forum get their funding internationally, then it is confusing to pin-point exactly where the tax money is going towards among the Tanzanian infrastructure. The Tanzania Revenue Authority is in charge of collecting and organizing the tax money. They have laws stating that the employers are in charge of collecting taxes from their employees, which are then collected from employers by local officials. However, in light of the corruption scandals of the 2005 elections, it would not be surprising if the corruption leaked down from the presidential candidates to the local officials and even all the way down to the employers. Employees are oftentimes undereducated, and so it would be easy for their employers to take advantage of their ignorance by collecting more than they should, and the local officials could take advantage of lack of knowledge about the tax laws to take more than they should. It is a vicious cycle that the Tanzanian villagers must suffer for.

While the problems in Tanzanian government are addressed, lion behavior must also be understood in order to better predict lion reactions to local human change. Even though lionesses will often be the ones to perform the hunting in a pride, when juvenile males wander alone before reigning over their own pride, they hunt animals easy to bring down on their own (Uhlenbroek, 236). These young males tend to be the culprits behind most livestock attacks, yet when the local villagers see their prized animals half-eaten in the dirt, they assume the local alpha male is the culprit and so kill him in retaliation. This tactic is ineffective because the alphas keep inexperienced younger lions in check, and when the alpha male is killed young males flock into his territory to battle for control over the pride. Such fights cause chaos amongst prides, which makes the lions violent and scatter in confusion, thus more likely to hunt livestock and attack humans who wander across their path. Better fences triggered with a second ring of bells, which alarm when a carnivore tries to climb over the fence should be implemented to the livestock populations instead of killing every alpha male lion, which may or may not have hunted a sheep or two.

Whether called Panthera Leo or African lion, the King of Beasts has been surrounded by a plethora of legend and folklore. However, recent studies have revealed new discoveries in our understanding of lion social structure. Lions are the only big cats to travel in large groups called prides. It was thought by biologists that lions band together to hunt prey, but the world’s leading lion expert Craig Packer and his colleagues have found that every aspect of lion social life is centered what he refers to as “the dreadful enemy”: other lions (Tucker, 25). When lions become adults, females stay with their mother pride and males are driven away by the alpha male. Prides are constantly threatened by these young males searching for a pride of their own to lead. Lionesses create nurseries for defense, because cooperating lionesses stand a better chance of protecting their cubs against intruding young males, which will kill cubs from the previous alpha male once they have taken over the pride. Packer has observed lions banning together to fend off and sometimes kill intruders. Larger and stronger lion groups rule richer savanna where prey animals are abundant, and thus most valuable, while smaller and weaker lion groups are pushed to the barren edges. Only as long as there are people like Packer defending the lion’s right to survive will we be able to continue learning new findings of the fascinating lion way of life.

Another lion discovery has enlightened the evolutionary purpose behind appearance. The lion is the only cat with a mane, and some believed it was in order to protect the animal’s neck during fights. However, Craig Packer thought manes might be a message or status symbol, since lions are also the most social felines. So in the late 1990’s, he and his team had a Dutch toy company design four life-size plush lions with light and dark manes of differing lengths. Planted cameras revealed that females attempted to seduce the dark-maned plushes, while male lions avoided the dark-maned ones, preferring to attack the shorter light-maned plushes. With this experiment in mind, Packer’s team then analyzed field data, and found many males with short manes suffered injury or illness. The dark-maned males died older, with higher testosterone levels, healed well after wounding, and sired more surviving cubs, which made them more desirable mates and more formidable foes (Tucker, 32). Thanks to Packer’s intrigue and his experiment, we now know a lion’s mane signals vital information on its health and abilities.

The human-lion conflict of the Serengeti stems from many sources, both on the local and national levels in Tanzania. Corruption in government prevents the taxes collected to be effective in helping the Tanzanian people, and local villagers kill lions for the wrong reasons, which ensue chaos among the prides, damaging the health of the wildlife prey populations. Research performed to better understand the way lions live and think is imperative to learning how they will react to changes in their environment and the human population. Approaching such a problem from multiple perspectives in order to cut off the source at its roots can be implemented with other human-carnivore conflicts around the world, such as with the tigers of Asia and the wolves of North America.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1 - Uhlenbroek, Charlotte Animal Life Dorling Kindersley Limited, (2011)

2 - Tucker, Abigail “The Truth About Lions” Smithsonian, (January 2010)

3 - Loibooki, Martin; Hofer, Heribert; Campbell, Kenneth L. I.; East, Marion L. “Bushmeat hunting by communities adjacent to the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania: the importance of livestock ownership and alternative sources of protein and income” Foundation for Environmental Conservation, (May 2002)

4 - Packer, C.; Holt, R. D.; Hudson, P. J.; Lafferty, K. D.; Dobson, A. P.; “Keeping the herds healthy and alert: implications of predator control for infectious disease” Ecology Letters, (2003) 6: 797-802

5 - Holmern, Tomas; Nyahongo, Julius; Roskaft, Eivin; “Livestock loss caused by predators outside the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania” Biological Conservation 135 (2007) 518-526

6 - Packer, Craig; Kissui, Bernard M. “Managing Human-Lion Conflicts” Transactions of the 72nd North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference, E.4-E.18

7 - Maddox, Gregory; Giblin, James; Kimambo, Isaria N. Custodians of the Land: Ecology & Culture in the History of Tanzania James Currey Ltd, (1996)

8 - Packer, C.; Brink, H.; Kissui, B. M.; Maliti, H.; Kushnir, H.; Caro, T “Effects of Trophy Hunting on Lion and Leopard Populations in Tanzania” Conservation Biology, Society for Conservation Biology (2010)

9 - Neumann, R. P. “Political Ecology of Wildlife Conservation in the Mt. Meru Area of Northeast Tanzania” John Wiley & Sons Ltd, (1992)

Limiting the Human Factor

ANIMALS: WHY SHOULD WE KEEP THEM, AND HOW?

By: Catherine Puma

            The importance of wildlife preservation has been squawked by conservationists incalculable times before. We need to protect animals; we are not doing enough; we need to do more, and we need to do it now. We have heard these calls countless times, but hopefully we will not have to for much longer.

            Let us consider this issue of endangered species from a fresh perspective. Imagine a clock, a colossal clock. That giant clock is a machine; a machine with billions of cogs that make it work. Imagine the Earth is that clock, with its cogs including the atmosphere, landmasses, oceans, forests, weather system, and animals. These cogs morph and change over time through evolution and survival of the fittest in order to adapt to new eras. If we, the human species, take it into our own hands to eliminate sections of this vital animal cog, the clock on which we depend will erode and deteriorate. We, with our advanced intelligence and civilized capacity, should leave the cogs alone as much as possible to evolve at their own pace and be the clock’s caretakers to ensure its durability.

            Although animals are needed on Earth, why do we want them on Earth? What are the purposes behind preventing animal extinction due to human interference? Survival of our wildlife is desirable because animals are imperative to advancements in knowledge, health, and overall understanding of the world around us. Through observation of species, we now know many facts and aspects of those animals that were previously unimaginable. Through the usage of species, there are medical advancements in our society, which would be impossible without animals. Through understanding of species, we find that we understand ourselves, and this planet. We want to preserve other species because they are necessary to improving our own species.

            As long as animals survive alongside us, our knowledge of them will continue to grow. Examples of theory changing discoveries in biology are numerous, including those involving chimpanzees, lions and dolphins remind us of how much there is still to learn. We cannot study animals to the fullest if they become extinct.

            The once mysterious lives of chimpanzees have become better understood through research. Jane Goodall, an icon in the conservationist community who has devoted her career and life to protecting and educating the importance of animals, discovered after six months of observation that chimps use blades of grass as tools to capture termites for food. Previously humans were the only species believed to use tools, and the theory that we were by far the most intelligent animal species was thrown into doubt. If chimpanzees had not been studied or had become extinct, then their skills would not have become known. We would have no idea how intelligent they could be, and thus would not respect their abilities.

            Whether called Panthera Leo or African Lion, this king of beasts has been surrounded by a plethora of legend and folklore. However, recent studies have revealed new discoveries in our understanding of lion social structure. Lions are the only big cats to travel in large groups, called prides. It was thought by biologists that lions band together to hunt prey, but world’s leading lion expert Craig Packer and his colleagues have found that every aspect of lion social life is centered around what he refers to as “the dreadful enemy”: other lions. When lions become adults, females stay with their mother pride and males are driven away by the alpha male. Prides are constantly threatened by these young males searching for a pride of their own to lead. Lionesses create nurseries for defense, because cooperating lionesses stand a better chance of protecting their cubs against intruding young males, which will kill cubs from the previous alpha male once they have taken over the pride. Packer has observed lions banning together to fend off and sometimes kill intruders. Larger and stronger lion groups rule the richer savanna where prey animals are abundant, and thus most valuable, while smaller and weaker lion groups are pushed to the barren edges. Only as long as there are people like Packer defending the lion’s right to survive will be able to continue learning new findings of the fascinating lion way of life.

            Another lion discovery has enlightened the evolutionary purpose behind appearance. The lion is the only cat with a mane, and some believed it was in order to protect the animal’s neck during fights. However, Craig Packer thought manes might be a message or status symbol, since lions are also the only social felines. So in the late 1990’s, he and his team had a Dutch toy company design four life-size plush lions with light and dark manes of differing lengths. Planted cameras revealed that females attempted to seduce the dark-maned plushes, while male lions avoided the dark-maned ones, preferring to attack the shorter light-maned plushes. With this experiment in mind, Packer’s team then analyzed field data, and found many males with shorter manes suffered injury or sickness. The dark-maned males were older, with higher testosterone levels, healed well after wounding, and sired more surviving cubs, thus making them more desirable mates and more formidable foes. Thanks to Packer’s intrigue and his experiment, we now know a lion’s mane signals vital information on its health and fighting ability.

            The lion is not the only species coming under light of new biological discoveries. Many of our preconceived notions regarding the dolphin have been recently altered, for instance. With the aforementioned observation by Jane Goodall, chimpanzees were for many years believed to be only second to us in intelligence. However, in Jonathan Leake’s January 2011 article, “Scientists Say Dolphins Should Be Treated as ‘Non-Human Persons’”, recent information now has scientists placing dolphins above chimps in intelligence, and thus only second to humans. For example, the dolphin brain mass relative to its body size is only second to that of humans. In a study, Professor of psychology Diana Reiss has found bottlenose dolphins can recognize themselves in a mirror and use it to check various parts of their appearance, an ability previously only believed to be limited to humans and great apes. Another study shows that captive dolphins can learn a basic symbol-based language, similar to a chimp’s ability to learn basic sign language.

            These prove dolphins are as smart as chimpanzees, but what makes them closer to us in intelligence? In one case, a rescued wild dolphin was taught how to tail-walk while recovering in an Australian dolphinarium. After this dolphin was released, scientists witnessed the tail-walk trick spreading among dolphins who acquired it from the previous captive. This situation shows how captive dolphins can teach their wild siblings what they have learned from us. Thus wild dolphins are just as intelligent as captive dolphins, and dolphins are just as capable as us at teaching themselves new tricks. Because of these abilities they share with us, the dolphin brain structure has been questioned. Lori Marino, a zoologist at Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia, and her colleagues found that the cerebral cortex and neocortex of bottlenose dolphins were so large they were only second to that of humans. The brain cortex of the bottlenose had the same elaborate folds which are strongly related to human intelligence. Such a controversial suggestion that dolphins are more similar to us in intelligence than chimpanzees, which share 98% of our DNA, needed to verify the physical make-up of dolphin brains in order to prove its validity. If dolphins had become extinct before these findings could be made, then we would have no idea how similar they are to us.

            Because these are such recent discoveries, there is no telling what more we have to learn from lions and dolphins, and these are only two examples of the millions of species on Earth. What more can we learn from other species? The list is endless, but we cannot fully research those species without protecting them from extinction. Yes, paleontologists have discovered what we know of dinosaurs from their remains, but it is impossible to learn more about the lion social structure or dolphin intelligence if we cannot observe their daily activities. The survival of animals is imperative to our growing knowledge of the animal kingdom.

            We want animals to survive alongside because our health depends on them. Amphibians are great examples of how species are beneficial to our well-being, because they are indicators of environmental quality, water quality, and temperature in an ecosystem. An unhealthy amphibian population is an early sign of biological issues in an area, because there could be hazards polluting that region which could harm us as well. Right at this moment, medicines are being created from medicinal properties found in the skin of amphibians are being harvested to help treat illnesses such as “cancer, Parkinson’s disease, and even AIDs”. These medicines would be impossible without the help of the amphibian’s natural resources. Whether as indicators of medical helpers, amphibians are important to our health, and amphibian survival is a top priority among present conservationists.

            Animals remind us to understand our place in the circle of life. The lion population began to decline twelve thousand years ago, and it is inferred by scientists that the decline began because prehistoric humans competed with lions for food. Back then their death by our hands was necessary for our survival, but now because of our increased intelligence and advancements in agriculture, it is unnecessary. Cheetahs were commonly found in areas throughout Africa, the Middle East, and Southwest Asia, yet in the past 100 years alone hunting and destruction of habitat have reduced the cheetah’s territory range and population. Unnecessary killing is barbaric, degrading, and wrong. We need to be the world’s caretaker’s, not its destroyers. We have the intelligence and the resources; we need the initiative.

            There are many effective local programs being utilized to help the endangered species in those areas, and two such practices in Australia are especially appealing. In Australia, koala habitats are being cut through to make room for road systems, which led to a mass problem of the country’s symbol becoming nothing better than road-kill. The solution to this problem was the invention of “koala tunnels”, which were built beneath the roads. Fences with floppy tops, which prevented koalas from climbing over them, forced the animals to search the bottom for openings, where they would find the tunnels, which allow safe passage to the other side of the road. Another practice is the snake removal system. Australia is “home to some of the world’s most venomous snakes”, and so sometimes they end up in private homes. When the home residents call for help, instead of an exterminator, a snake remover comes to the home for the snake and releases it back in the wild outside the city. These are excellent alternatives to useless killing, and examples of what the human population can accomplish in order to save its local wildlife in small, inventive ways.

            Habitat preservation is one of the most important ways in which we can use to help save endangered species. Cutting down forests because of growing human populations is the main reason for endangered species and thus the increase in extinction rates. It is common sense that an animal cannot live if there is nowhere for it to live in. human activity has increased the extinction rate between one thousand and ten thousand species per one million species in the rain forest due to deforestation alone. We must limit our deforestation practices as much as possible, because the animals need it more then we do. We have the intelligence and resources to make houses and other items without excess wood, and we need to utilize those abilities if the number of endangered species may be reduced and stay reduced in the generations to come.

            In the words of Nelson Mandela, “Education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to change the world”. This is true in every aspect of the world, especially when regarding animals. Acclaimed conservationists such as Jane Goodall, Craig Packer, Kenneth Norris, and Jeff Corwin not only deal with preserving animals, but also educating others on the animals which they are so passionate about, whether they be chimpanzees, lions, dolphins, amphibians, or everything in between. The fact is, it is impossible to care about something we know nothing about. Thus, educating others on endangered species and how we all can improve their situation is imperative in the quest to save our animals in need.

            And finally, the most important aspect to consider when saving endangered species is funding. Nothing happens in this world without money, and wildlife conservationists are in desperate need of support and donations. The programs in Australia would be impossible without the government and its citizens willing to sponsor such ideas in order to save their wildlife. Educating our children on the importance of animals would be laughable if there weren’t those paying biology teachers for their vital work. Jeff Corwin, world famous conservationist and television show host, would be nobody if there weren’t kids willing to watch his shows, listen to his talks, and buy his books. It is a sad truth, but a truth nonetheless. Therefore, we can help endangered species around the globe by donating to wildlife organizations which can help them directly, even if we cannot spare the time to help them ourselves.

            There is no fairy tale ending to the issue of endangered species; no happily ever after. The animal cog in the Earth clock will continue to morph and change; animals will be lost to extinction through Darwin’s survival of the fittest theory. There is no stopping the process, but we can limit the human factor in extinction as much as possible. Through local programs, habitat preservation, education, and funding, there is hope for animal survival. 

What's Expected?

      My name is Catherine Puma, and I am a college student. I love animals and I love writing, so I thought I might combine the two and share the wildlife experiences I have in my daily life. The things that I may post could be anything from papers I have written on endangered species, pictures I have taken of the cardinal family living outside my window, or videos of me shark fishing over the summer. I'm not yet sure how often I plan to post, or in what order (if any) to publish these events, so we'll just have to figure out those together.
      Wildlife are simply such a large aspect of my view on life, that I cannot separate the two. As a good intro into the type of person I am, below I have attached a video of the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) Earth Hour event coming up. I will be participating.

Earth Hour 2012 Official Video